Roles Of Human Resource Management

Roles Of Human Resource centeringIn the past few years, roles for HR professionals were viewed in impairment of transition from operational to strategicalal qualitative to quantitative policing to partnering short-term to long-term administrative to consultative function whollyy oriented to business oriented internally focused to externally and customer-focused reactive to proactive activity-focused to solutions-focused (Ulrich, 1997). However, these transitions ask been earnn as too simplistic. In fact, the roles of HR professionals ar multiple, not single. In order to create value and deliver results, HR professionals must not scarcely focus on the activities or realise of HR but also define the deliver equals of the bend. Therefore, Ulrich (1997) came out a multiple-role model for kind-hearted resource focussing (See Figure 2-1). The two axes represent the HR professionals focus and activities. Focus ranges from long-term/strategic to short-term/operational. HR profes sionals must learn to be some(prenominal) strategic and operational, foc utilise on the long term and short term. Activities rang from managing dish (HR tools and systems) to managing people. These two axes delineate four principal HR roles which atomic number 18 (1) Management of strategic human resources (2) Management of firm infrastructure (3) Management of the employee contribution and (4) management of transformation and lurch (Ulrich 1997). In a short word, the roles of HR professional are strategic partner administrative expert employee champion and change agent. Table 2-1 summarizes the deliverables, metaphor and activities the HR professional must perform to fulfill the role.Figure 2-1 HR Roles in Building a Competitive OrganizationSource Ulrich, 1997Table 2-1 Definition of HR rolesRole/CellDeliverable/OutcomeMetaphorActivityManagement of strategic Human ResourcesExecuting strategyStrategic PartnerAligning HR and business strategy organizational diagnosisManagement of soused al-QaedaBuilding an efficient infrastructureAdministrative ExpertReengineering Organization Processes Shared serviceManagement of Employee ContributionIncreasing employee consignment and capabilityEmployee Championearshot and responding to Employees Providing resources to employeesManagement of Transformation and ChangeCreating a renewed organizationChange AgentManaging transformation and change Ensuring capacity for changeSource Ulrich, 1997Management of Strategic Human Resources-Strategic PartnerAs Ulrich said, HR professionals conciliate a strategic role when they support the ability to translate business strategy into action (Ulrich, 1997). To get this, the HR manager must be able to ask appropriate questions and contribute to business decisions. As a result, the HR manager must baffle business acumen, a customer orientation and an awareness of the competition to be able to link business strategy to HR polices and go fors. However, research suggests that only a m inority of CEOs involve their HR managers in formulating business strategy (Nankervis, 2000 and Johnson, 2000). Evidence indicate that there is growing awareness of the need for HR managers to become actively involved at the strategic level, and increasingly recognize that organizations that have a CEO who recognizes the significance of HRM have a competitive advantage (Fisher and Dowling, 1999 Way, 2000).Management of Firm Infrastructure-Administrative ExpertAccording to Ulrich, to become administrative experts, HR professionals must be able to reengineer HR activities through the use of technology, rethinking and redesigning work processes and the continues improvement of all organisational processes see HR as creating value and measure HR results in terms of efficiency (cost) and effectiveness (quality) (Ulrich, 1997 Blackburn and Rosen, 1995). Research also indicates that the competency levels of HR managers in high-performing firms are significantly higher than those of HR man agers in natural opinion-performing firms (Yeung, 1998)Management of Employee Contribution-Employee ChampionWork as employee champion requires that the HR professional must be able to and meet the needs of employees. This can achieve by being the employees voice in management discussions, by being fair and principled, by assuring employees that their concerns are being heard and by helping employees to find new resources so that enable them to successfully perform their byplays (Ulrich, 1997). Failure to be an employee champion forget see HRM facing a loss of trust for losing sight of the needs, aspirations and interests of the workforce (Kochan, 2003). Ignoring employee-related outcomes may result in lower jog joy, lower commitment and slenderised military operation, which in turn, negatively affect organizational performance (Guest, 2002).Management of Transformation and Change-Change AgentAct as change agent can be achieved by cultivation change in the HR function and by spring uping problem-solving communication and influence skills. Gloet argues that one way for HRM to reinvent itself is via the development and maintenance of learning environments, where noesis creation, sharing and dissemination are valued (Gloet, 2003).Ulrich, D. (1997) Human resource Champions The nest agenda for adding value and delivering results, Harvard Business School Press, USANankervis, A. Small packages, HR monthly, November 2000, pp.42-3Johnson, E.K. (2000), The practice of human resource management in New Zealand Strategic and best practice?, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resource, vol.38, no,2, 2000, pp.69-83.Fisher,C. and Dowling, P. (1999), Support for an HR approach in Australia the perspective of senior HR managers, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resource, vol.37, no.1,1999,pp.2-19.Way, N. (2000), A new world of people power, Business Review Weekly, 16 June 2000, pp. 62-6.Blackburn and Rosen, Does HRM walk the TQM run out?, HR Magazine, July 1995, pp. 68-72.Yeu ng, A, Human Resource Competencies in Hong Kong Research Findings and Applications Guide, HKIHRM/University of Michigan Business School, Hong Kong, 1998, p.4.Ellig, B, HR must balance demands of dual roles, HR News, July, 1996, p.9.Allen, C. and Lovell, K., The effects of high performance work systems on employees in aged care, Labour and Industry, vol.13, no.3, 2003, p.14.Kochan, T., quoted in Trinca, H,HR needs to rebuild trust, Australian Financial Review, 11 November 2003, p. 59.Guesr, D, 2002, op. cit., p.335.Gloet, M, The changing role of the HRM function in the knowledge economy the links to quality knowledge management, paper presented at the 8th International Conferece on ISO and TQM, Montreal, April 2003, pp. 1-7.2.2 Human Resource Management overview in chinawareSince the late 1970s, China has been going through a transition. The economic reform in China has led to impressive growth and significant integration into the globular economy. These developments have resulted in study changes in the management of industrial enterprises and hold considerable implication for HR practices in the nation with the largest workforce in the world. In China, HR practices have been shaped by a host of ideological, historical, political and economic factors. Under the economic reform programmed, although some market forces have been introduced into the HR system, the influence of the state is still considerable (Nyaw, 1995193). In 1979, China introduced the open door policy. Since then, economic reforms have brought many changes to the business environment. The end of the iron strain bowl policy has created a new interlocking market. SOEs have to compete with joint ventures and privately owned enterprises. With reforms in HR practices, managers in SOEs have to a greater extent autonomy including the authority to hire and fire. There are significant differences in HR practices amid firms of antithetical ownership. MNCs and joint ventures have brought into China not only investment but also management practices. For example, labour contracts have re speckled lifetime employment. A performance-based pay back system is gradually replacing the seniority pay system. These practices have an heavy influence on domestic firms in changing their HR practices (Warner, 2001)Benson and Zhu (1999) spy that there were three major models of HRM in Chinese enterprises. The first was a traditional model that existed in large SOEs where there was surplus labour. These SOEs had close ties with the government and contributed to local development. They had traditional HR management systems. The second model was observed in foreign-owned enterprises or newly established domestic private enterprises. They had fewer constraints than SOEs. They realized that their success based either on western or Japanese systems. The third model was observed in firms that were undergoing a transition from the old to the new systems of HR management. They adopted a HR managem ent style with Chinese characteristics.Nyaw, M.K. (1995) Human resource management in the Peoples Republic of China, in Moore, L.F. and Jennings, P.D. (eds), Human Resource Management on the Pacific Rim, Walter de Gruyter, New York, 187-216.Warner, M. (2001), Human resource management in the Peoples Republic of China, in Budhwar, P.S. and Debrah, Y.A. (eds), Human Resource Management in Developing Countries, Routledge, London and New York, 19-33.Benson, J. and Zhu, Y. (1999), Markets, firms and workers The transformation of human resource management in Chinese state-owned enterprises, Human resource management Journal, Vol.9., No.4, 58-74.2.3 Human Resource Management OutcomesHRM is concerned with both organizational performance and employee wellbeing which means that any valuation of HRs contribution must incorporate both organizations and employees perspectives. The contribution of HRM to the organizational performance taked aligning HR strategies with organizational strategies, managing the corporate culture to win employee commitment and being efficient in managing HR activities. On the different hand, the contribution to individual wellbeing relate to employee attitudes and deportment. High-performance HRM benefits the organization because the way employees respond to HRM initiatives is conjugate to their ponder performance and ultimately to organizational performance (Guest, 2002). Therefore, when evaluate HRM performance, following outcomes should be consideredAdaptability that means HRM strategies and policies foster organizational and employee flexibility. The whole organization and employee ready for change and accept change. After that, innovation and creativity encouraged, knowledge is recognized as a critical asset and the organization utilize people with different ground and value systems.Commitment this concern with HRM policies enhance employee identification with and attachment to their parentage and the organization. High level of com mitment can result in more loyalty, extend teamwork and reduced labour turnover, along with a greater sense of employee self-worth, dignity, psychological involvement and feeling of being integral to the organization.Competence Relates to the extent that HRM polices attract, retain, motivate and develop employees with the abilities, skills, knowledge and competencies to achieve the organizations strategic objectives.Congruence concern with HRM polices generate or give congruence amongst management and employees, different employee groups, the organization and the community, employees and their families, and within the individual. In other words, HRM strategies and policies produce the achievement of employee goals, at the same time, satisfy the organizations strategies business objectives. Lack of congruence can be costly to the organization in terms of time, money and energy, resulting low levels of trust and lack of common purpose and stress or other psychological problems wil l happen (Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Mills and Walton, 1984)Cost-effectiveness the HRM strategies and polices can reduce personnel-related cost, help correctly size the organization, eliminate unnecessary work, reduce compensation and benefit costs, reduce labour turnover and absenteeism, improve employee wellness and safety, improve employee productivity and avoid costs from litigation and negative public similes.Job gratification HRM strategies and polices can produce employees have positive attitudes and feelings about their pranks. Common employee felicity components include pay, promotion opportunities, fringe benefits, supervision, colleagues, blood line conditions, the nature of the work, communication and ruminate security (Spector, 2000). Rose (2002) suggested that employees frustrated and bored with repetitive and standardized work have low commitment. A satisfied employee tends to be absent less often, make positive contributions, stay with the organization and radiat e positive feelings towards customers (McShane and Von Glinow, 2000).Justice HR strategies, polices and practices are the right way communicators regarding managements trustworthiness, fairness and commitment to employees. If management is perceived favourably, employees reciprocate with increased commitment to the organization (Whitener, 2001).Motivation HRM strategies and policies stimulate employees to achieve a designated goal. Highly motivated employees work hard, come to work early and contribute more to the organizations strategic objectives.Performance HRM contribute to employee job performance and productivity and the organizations overall profitability, growth and success.Trust HRM promote trust between employees, management and the organization. Under trust, employees are willing to share information, genuinely cooperate with one another and not take advantage of other.Stone, R (2005) Human Resource Mangement, 5th ed, John Wiley Sons, Australia.Beer, M, Spector, B, Lawr ence, P. R, Mills, D.Q, and Walton, R. E, (1984), Managing Human Assets, The Free Press, New York, p.19.Rose, E, The labour process and union commitment within a banking services blackguard center, Journal of Industrial Relations, vol.44, no.1, 2002, p.40.McShane, S. L. and Von Glinow, M. A, (2000), Organization Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Boston.Whitener, E. M., Do high commitment human resource practices affect employee commitment A cross level analysis use hierarchical linear modeling, Journal of Management, vol. 27, no. 5, 2001, p.515.2.3.1 Employee Job SatisfactionAs mention before, one of the outcomes of HRM is job satisfaction. However, what causes employee satisfaction? The researchers Judge and Bono (2001) found that one of the direct causes is the perception of the job itself. And also job itself is the most important situational effect on job satisfaction. Other research also show that of all the major job satisfaction areas, satisfaction with the nature of the work itself which includes job challenge, autonomy, variety and scope are best predicts overall job satisfaction (Fried and Ferris, 1987 Parisi and Weiner, 1999 Weiner, 2000). Some common statements about the facets that seem to contribute the most to feelings of job satisfaction for most North American workers include mentally challenging work, high pay, promotions and friendly or helpful colleagues (Locke, 1976). For more detail, Spector (1997) concluded that the causes of job satisfaction can be classified into two major categories. First, the job environment itself and factors associated with the job are important influences on job satisfaction. This includes how people are treated, the nature of job tasks, relations with other people in the workplace, and rewards. Second, there are individual factors that the person brings to the job. This includes both personality and prior experiences. Both categories work together to influence employee job satisfaction. In this study, we mainly focus o n the environment antecedents of job satisfaction. Following factors are the environmental causes of job satisfactionJob Characteristics and Job Characteristics TheoryMany studies have advocated job design as a means of enhancing job satisfaction by making jobs more interesting (Herzberg, 1968 Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman, 1959). The job characteristic theory is that people can be motived by the intrinsic satisfaction they find in doing tasks. When they find their work to be enjoyable and meaningful, people will like their jobs and will be motivated to perform their jobs well (Hackman and Oldhams, 1976). The characteristics model see act 2-2.Figure 2-2 Hackman and Oldhams (1976) Job Characteristics ModelCore Characteristics Critical OutcomesPsychologicalStatesSkill VarietyTask IdentityTask Significance experienceMeaningfulnessAutonomyExperiencedResponsibilityFeedbackKnowledge of ResultsWork MotivationJob PerformanceJob SatisfactionAttendanceGrowth Need StrengthSource Hackman and Oldhams, 1976Organizational ConstrainsConditions of the job environment that interfere with employee job performance are called organizational constraints. The constraints come from many aspects of the job, including other people and the physical work environment. As the study of Peters and OConnor (1980), organizational constraints have been shown to relate to job satisfaction. Significant relations have been found between various measures of constraints and job satisfaction (Jex and Gudanowski, 1992 Keenan and Newton, 1984 OConor et al., 1984 Spector et al., 1988). OConnor, Peters, Rudolf and Pooyan (1982) treated correlations of organizational constraints with five job satisfaction facets which are coworker, pay, promotion, supervision and work itself.Work-Family ConflictWork-family conflict has been found to correlate significant with job satisfaction. Employees who experience high levels of conflict tend to report low levels of job satisfaction (Bedeian, Burke and Moffett, 19 88 Holahan and Gilbert, 1979 Lewis and Cooper, 1987 Rice, Frone and McFarlin, 1992). Organizations can adopt policies that either help people cope with or reduce work-family conflict. Thomas and Ganster (1995) studied the bushel of organization policies and supervisor behavior on employee experience of work-family conflict and job satisfaction. Their research provides evidence that organizational policies such as child care and tensile work schedules can reduce work-family conflict and enhance job satisfaction. Behavior by supervisors that supports employees with family responsibilities was also found to have positive effects.PayThe correlation between level of pay and job satisfaction tends to be surprisingly small. Spector (1985) found a mean correlation between level of pay and job satisfaction. However, although pay level is not an important issue, pay fairness can be very important. Rice, Phillips and McFarlin (1990) reported a moderately large correlation between pay level a nd job satisfaction in a sample of mental health professionals who all had the same job.WorkloadWorkload has been found correlated with job dissatisfaction as well as other job strains (Jex and Beehr, 1991). Jamal (1990) found significant negative correlations of workload with job satisfaction, and Karasek, Gardell and Lindell (1987) found that workload was negatively associated with job satisfaction. witnessControl has been found to correlate significantly with all three categories of job strains (Jex and Beehr, 1991). Spector (1986) showed the mean correlations across studies of relations between control and job satisfaction.Spector, P.E. (2000) Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2nd ed, John Wiley Sons, New York, p.19.Poulin, J. E., and Walter, C. A. (1992) Retention Plans and Job Satisfaction of Gerontological Social Workers, Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 19, pp. 99-114.Porter, L. W. (1962), Job attitudes in management I. sensed deficiencies in need fulfillment as a function of job level. Journal of Applied Psychology, 46, 375-384.Wolf, M. G. (1970), Need gratification theory A theoretical reformulation of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction and job motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 54, 87-94.2.3.2 The Consequences of Job Satisfaction and DissatisfactionThere are many positive or negative outcomes that relate to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. These include not only work variables such as job performance and turnover but also non-work variables such as health and life satisfaction.Job PerformanceIn fact, a large body of research shows that the relationship between satisfaction and performance is positive but usually very low and often inconsistent (Iaffaldano and Muchinsky, 1985). Why is this correlation between job attitudes and job behavior so low? Intuition suggests that we might work harder to pay back the organization for a satisfying job. However, intuition also suggests that we might be so busy enjoying our satisfying j ob that we have secondary time to be productive. For example, satisfying coworkers and a pleasant superior might lead us to devote more time to social interactions than to work. These contradictory intuitions elevate suspicion that the satisfaction causes performance might be incorrect.Iaffaldano, M.T. and Muchinsky, P.M. (1985), Jo satisfaction and job performance A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251-273.Organizational Citizenship BehaviorOrganizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is behavior by an employee intended to help coworkers or the organization that contributes to organizational effectiveness (Organ, 1988 Schnake, 1991). Schnake (1991) hypothesized that OCB is caused by good treatment from the supervisor and by job satisfaction. In fact, job satisfaction and OCB have been found to intercorrelate (Becker and Billings, 1993 Farh, Podsakoff and Organ, 1990)Withdrawal BehaviorMany theories hypothesize that people who dislike their jobs will avoid them, either perma nently by quitting or temporarily by being absent or coming in late. Absence is a phenomenon that can reduce organizational effectiveness and efficiency by increasing labour costs. On many jobs, floaters or substitutes are required for each absent employee. The employee might continue to get paid, resulting in increased costs to pay substitutes. Where absence rates among employees is high, the costs can be quite high. Not surprisingly, organizations are concerned about absence. Theories of absence hypothesize that job satisfaction plays a critical role in an employees decision to be absent (Steers and Rhodes, 1987). People who dislike their jobs should be expected to avoid coming to work. On the other hand, most theories of turnover view turnover as the result of employee job dissatisfaction (Bluedorn, 1982 Mobley, Griffeth, Hand and Meglino, 1979). People who dislike their jobs will try to find alternative employment. Studies have been consistently in showing a correlation between job satisfaction and turnover (Crampton and Wagner, 1994 Hulin, Roznowski and Hachiya, 1985). Furthermore, it seems certain that this correlation is causal job dissatisfaction leads to turnover. Models of turnover place job satisfaction in the center of a complex process that involves factors both inside and outside of the employing organization. Figure 2-2 is a simplified model that shows how this process might work. Characteristics of the individual combine with characteristics of the job environment in determining level of job satisfaction. If the job satisfaction level is sufficiently low, the person will develop a behavioral intention to quit the job. That intention may lead to job search activities, which if successful will lead to turnover. Alternate employment opportunities are important because a person is not potential to quit without another job offer.Figure 2-2 Model of Employee Turnover as a blend in of Job Satisfaction and Unemployment RateOrganization FactorsPerson FactorsJob SatisfactionIntent to quitSearch BehaviorTurnoverAvailability of AlternativesSource Spector, 1997BurnoutBurnout is a distressed emotional/psychological state experienced on the job. Where job satisfaction is an attitudinal response, burnout is more of an emotional response to the job. Burnout theory proposes that a person who is in a state of burnout experiences symptoms of emotional exhaustion and low work motivation, not unlike depression. Burnout correlates significantly with job satisfaction in that dissatisfied employees are likely to report high levels of burnout (Bacharach, Bamberger and Conley, 1991 Shirom, 1989).Physical Health and Psychological Well-BeingConcerns have been raised that both physical and psychological health might be influenced by job attitudes. Individuals who dislike their jobs could experience adverse health outcomes. These outcomes include both physical symptoms and psychological problems (Spector, 1997). It has also been suggested that job di ssatisfaction results in a shortened biography (Palmore, 1969). Many studies have been shown a link between health and job satisfaction. For example, researchers have reported significant correlations between job satisfaction and physical or psychosomatic symptoms, such as headache and upset stomach (Begley and Czajka, 1993 Fox, Dwyer and Ganster, 1993 Lee, Ashford and Bobko, 1990 O Driscoll and Beehr, 1994). Job dissatisfaction has also been found to be associated with emotional stated of anxiety (Jex and Gudanowski, 1992 Spector et al., 1988) and depression (Bluen, Barling and Burns, 1990 Schauboeck et al., 1992).Counterproductive BehaviorCounterproductive behavior includes aggression against coworkers, aggression against the employer, sabotage and left (Spector, 1997). These behaviors have many causes, but often, they are associated with dissatisfaction and frustration at work. subgenus Chen and Spector (1992) found that job satisfaction correlated significantly with employee re ports of engaging in aggression against others, hostility toward others, sabotage, and theft at work. Keenan and Newton (1984) found a relation between experiencing feelings of hostility at work and job satisfaction as well. Dissatisfied employees are more likely than their satisfied counterparts to engage in all of these behaviors.Life SatisfactionThe research suggests that feelings in one area of life affect feelings in other areas. A person who is satisfied on the job is likely to be satisfied with life in general (Weaver, 1987). Studies consistently find that job satisfaction and life satisfaction are moderately and positively correlated (Judge and Watanabe, 1993 Lance, Lautenschlager, Sloan and Varca, 1989 Schaubroeck et al., 1992 Weaver, 1987).2.4 Employee Satisfaction and Organizational PerformanceOrganizational performance is a multidimensional concept. As illustrated by the list of thirty criterion measures identified by Cambell (1997). Performance is measured in terms of o utput (inappropriately referred to as productivity in the table) and outcome, profit, internal process and procedures, organizational structures, employee attitudes, organizational responsiveness to the environment and so on. More recently, one approach to measure organizational performance has become popular. This approach attempts to capture some of the contradictory nature of organizational performance is termed the balance scorecard (Kaplan and Norton, 1992, 1993, 1996). This aims to measure performance in terms of four sets of indicators, each taking a different perspective (Kaplan and Norton 199676)Financial to succeed fiscally, how should we appear to our shareholders? node to achieve our vision, how should we appear to our customers?Internal business process to satisfy our shareholders and customers, what business processes must we excel at?Learning and growth to achieve our vision, how will we sustain our ability to change and improve?Therefore, about the relationship betwe en employee satisfaction and organizational performance, the service-profit chain concept supported that there are direct relationships between profitability, customer loyalty, and employee satisfaction, loyalty, and productivity (Heskett et al. 1994). Moreover, a study conducted by a national retailer found that a happy employee will stick with the company, give transgress service to the customer and recommend company products to others (Wall Street Journal July 22, 1998). Other study of the 100 Best Companies to Work For finds that the companies with the most satisfied employees had an above-average annual hark back to shareholders (Fortune December 1, 1998). A Gallup study finds positive correlation between employee satisfaction and financial performance (Economist August 8, 1998). What is more, there are many studies about different industries also approved that the employee satisfaction correlated with organizational performance. Such as Kaplan and Norton (1996) has found sig nificant correlation between employee morale and customer satisfaction in an oil company. A survey of hospital employees finds significant correlations between nursing-staff satisfaction scores and patient loyalty (Atkins, Marshall and Javalgi 1996). Another correlational study using data collected for 298 public schools finds support for the link between satisfaction levels of teachers and school performance (Ostroff 1992). Thus, according to the previous literature, employs satisfaction is correlated to customer loyalty, financial performance, which in turn, affects the organizational performance.